Pre-World+War+I



media type="custom" key="3576890"media type="custom" key="3576918" =**1975 Enumerate and explain some of the major causes that contributed to the oscillation from strong to weak governments in France during the period from 1789 to the founding of the Fifth Republic in 1958.** = From the beginnings of the French Revolution in 1789 to the founding of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the French people had experienced the leadership of five different republics, and two different empires. There are many factors contributing to the oscillation of French government including, political and social discontent, and political and social instability.

I. Political and Social Discontent -1st Republic -2nd Republic -3rd Republic
 * The first republic was formed in 1792 as a direct result of the French Revolution.
 * There was much political and social discontent that led to the French Revolution. The France was still in the Old Regime and had a very feudal political system - the clergy and nobility dominated the First and Second Estates, while the Third Estate was for everyone else. Members of the Third estate were often poor or middle class, taxed heavily, and had almost no political or social rights.
 * Another factor leading to the French revolution was the government's inability to improve France's financial situation. France had accumulated huge debts, especially from aiding the Americans in their revolution. The country's poor financial situation led to inflation and rising bread prices which infuriated peasants who then rioted in protest.
 * All of these factors piled up and led to the Third Estate, and some lower level clergy members forming the National Assembly. In Sept 21. 1792, the Convention declared France a Republic
 * The causes of the formation of the Second Republic were both political and social discontent, but more so social discontent.
 * The leadership of Louis Phillipe and his minister Guizot was very corrupt and was disliked by liberals, who then took advantage of the working class social discontent.
 * The harvests of 1846 and 1847 were poor, which resulted in high food prices and unemployment. The liberals held banquets to gain working class support, and the govt banned these banquets on Feb 21, 1848. Parisian workers protested the next day demanding Guizot's resignation, which he did. 2 days later Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England.
 * Alphonse de Lamartine, the poet leader of the liberal opposition set up a provisional govt which then called an election for a National Assembly based on universal male suffrage which would then write a republican constitution for France
 * In the December of 1852, Louis Napoleon declared France an empire, and was named Emperor Napoleon III. This second empire lasted until 1870, until Napoleon III's capture in the Battle of Sedan during the Franco-Prussian War.
 * After Paris surrendered to Prussia, the National Assembly gave executive power to Adolphe Thiers who negotiated the Treaty of Frankfurt
 * Once again, the Parisians suffered political and social discontent - They had suffered during the Prussian siege and resented the monarchists National Assembly. On March 28, 1871 Paris broke away from France to form the Paris Commune - the National Assembly quickly sent troops to reclaim the city and killed about 20,000 inhabitants in the process
 * With the Second Empire dead, and the Franco Prussian War over, the National Assembly resumed control and formed a republican govt much against its own will.

II. Political and Social Instability -4th Republic -5th Republic
 * The 3rd Republic was relatively stable, although it suffered many political scandals and corrupt administrations, its political structure allowed it to recover and resume a stable govt. This republic lasted until 1940, when France fell to Hitler's invasion.
 * After World War II, France suffered political and social instability. It lacked consistent leadership and experienced much political turmoil at the top of its political structure
 * As a result, in 1946, French citizens ratified a constitution which established, yet another Republic, known as the Fourth Republic. Charles de Gualle, the General of French forces during World War II, prior to its defeat at the hands of Hitler, and also an important political figure, left the Fourth Republic because he held great contempt for its politicians
 * France, yet again... Suffered great political instability. In Algeria, a socialistic political party known as the National Liberation Front (FLN) led an important decolonization war effort.
 * This became known as the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962). The Fourth Republic could not handle this war, and Charles de Gualle took advantage of the political instability and came to power in 1958, and established a Fifth French Republic. He led a strategic retreat from Algeria which resulted in Algerian independence in 1962.
 * This Fifth French Republic established a semi-presidential system, replacing the parliamentary system which had dominated French politics in the almost all of the past republics indirectly and directly.

Brian Kim

=1994 Describe and analyze the long term social and economic trends in the period 1860 to 1917 that prepared the ground for the revolution in Russia. =

In the second half of the ninteenth century, Russia attempted to reform itself so that it may emulate the rest of Europe by increasing efficiency and abolishing old, backwards tradition such as serfdom. However, though Russia was reforming, the people were still suppressed, leading to a growing amount of resentment. The newly freed serfs were in complete dissarray, still owing allotments to their previous masters and having no way of supporting themselves. When Alexander III transformed the government into one of repressive and autocratic characteristics, such as emplyoing secret police and increasing press censorship, the people saw all the evils of the autocratic government confirmed, thus causing social revolution against Czar Nicholas II. When Czar Alexander III imposed industrialization upon the people, it lowered living standards and turned most peasants into slaves, thus emulating the old Russian model and forcing the people to resort to violence to voice their opinion. - With the loss of the Crimean War, Russia was drained of its' resources, thus starving all from economic prosperity and foreshadowing an economic uprising. - Serfs were not allowed to own their own land yet, instead they were forced to pay a 49 year tax to their master for allotments of usually unusable land. - In addition to the land tax, they were charged interest on whatever they did not pay, thereby further accumulating debt and drastically lowering their ability to remain free of their masters. - Poor harvests centered around this time made it increasingly difficult, almost impossible for former serfs to pay for their land, thus dragging them into slave-like conditions once again. - Landowners were also dissatisfied with this reform bill, for now they too were deeply in debt without the use of serfs as laborers, and were forced to sell their land and recede from their lavish lifestyle. - When Alexander II punished Polish reformers by emancipating the serfs, a great majority of these serfs held no money, no goods and no way to sustain themselves independently. - Household serfs received no land at all from this agreement, leaving them devoid of any method to sustain themselves or their families. - The collection and distribution of land by the //mir// was despised by the newly freed serfs, because no matter how hard they worked they could never attain more land than their competitors. - Bonds paid to supplement the land owners for the loss of their previous work force plummetted in value after their incarnation. - The serfs were forced to pay bonds even after the landowners were reimbursed, thus making them feel cheated and fueling their anger with the incompetence of the government
 * __I: Economic Depression and Suppression of the Newly Freed Serfs__**

- The favoring of central beauracracy led to frustration within the public, for now the government was turning a deaf ear to their needs. - He employed a secret police, thus violating the sanctity of the people and the sovereignty of the local law enforcement and limiting the peoples' role in government even more - Press censorship increased under Czar Alexander III as well, and censorship was a key point of the people's aggression. - When Alexander II had experimented with autocracy, the people had rebelled and assassinated him. Thus, any further use of autocracy would would be a step toward the path of war. - Repressive politics within the government forced the Russian Social Democratic Party into exile, making them adopt radical and revolutionary tactics to earn a place in government. - //Populism// was a revolutionary movement against autocracy, and to deal with it the courts gave light sentences to all of those found practicing it. However, the Czar interferred and bestowed much heavier sentences upon these "criminals", forcing them to violently retaliate. - Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostse was the advisor to Alexander III, and taught his pupils to fear and loathe democracy and freedom of speech, himself instilling fear into the people by hunting down those accused of practicing democractic policies - The old maxim of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy and National Character" was revived and instilled into the people. What this meant was that Alexander III planned on "saving" Russia by isolating it from the Western Empire, thereby sustaining the slave-like economic system and infuriating the people - "Bloody Sunday" was a massacre of peasants in which Father Gapon and his followers attempted to give a petition to the Czar but were mudered then and there, causing a spark of rebellion among the people. - The Bolshevik revolution started forming at this time, attracting new members by pledging opposition to the harsh tactics of the current regime.
 * __II: Repression of the People and Abuse of the Autocratic Government under Alexander III__**

- Industrialism was first introduced into Russia in 1890 by Sergei Witte, as a measure of mainting its military position and diplomatic role within Europe. - Landowners all over Russia felt that capitalists were earning too great a profit at the expense of the labor of themselves and the peasants. - Working and living standards plummeted throughout Russia, and even though concessions were made they were insignificant, for workers' strikes and discontent still continued. - With the incurring of industrialization in Russia, farming families could not survive strip farming and thus were forced to work on large nobles estates and //kulaks.// - The population of Russia also dramatically increased, from 50 million to 103 million, and hunger and starvation became prevalant over the population, incurring discontent and uprisings in the countryside. - The changing of hands with power caused discontent within the nobles and landowners, because not only had they been stripped of their profiitable work force, they now were forced to start anew to hold any chance of retaining power and money within Russian society - The small and significant emerging proletariat caused discontent within the lower classes and inspired the beginning of a Socialist revolution within Russia.
 * __III: The Abuse of the Working Class Under Industrialization__**

Daniel Friedman

= media type="custom" key="3576954"media type="custom" key="3576984"  = =2006 Analyze anti-Semitism in Europe from the Dreyfus affair in the 1890s to 1939. = = = The Jews have been subjected to prejudice and bigotry since the beginning of time in a wide variety of cultures ranging from persecution in the Medieval times to the arising of the Eastern European ghettos in the second half of the 18th century. From 1890 on to the outbreak of the second world war there was increased apprehension and tension towards Jews in the form of France’s continual suppression of those of the faith and the German Nazis' imposition and means of exploitation of a racial myth of Aryan dominance, as well as broadened opportunities by the arising of the Zionist movement in 1896. I. French Suppression of the Jews -1894: A French military court of the 3rd Republic found Captain Alfred Dreyfus guilt of passing information to the German army with little evidence to back it up. He was immediately the victim in this case for the fact that he was Jewish. -Dreyfus was imprisoned for two years and as secrets continued to pour out of the army corps, a new counterintelligence head finally re-examined the file and found evidence of forgery. -A different implicated officer was acquitted of all charges while Dreyfus, who had previously been a similar person of suspicion, had undergone a much worse fate. -Meanwhile, the army, French Catholic Church, political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers all continued to take the side of Dreyfus’ guilt, and only liberals like Emile Zola stood up for Dreyfus. -In turn, Zola was convicted of libel and sentenced to a year in prison for publicly defending Dreyfus. Meanwhile, political leftist forces supported his cause mainly to aid in achieving a means to end: enhancing their public images. II: Nazi Racial Myth -Late 18th-century linguistic scholars had postulated the existence of an ancient race called the Aryans who had spoken the original language from which the rest derived. -Count Arthur de Gobineau, a reactionary French diplomat, emphasized the dominance of this race. His book portrayed the troubles of Western civilization as being the results of the long degeneration of the original white Aryan (Indo-European) race. -Towards the end of the 19th century, an Englishman who settled in Germany named Houston Stewart Chamberlain drew these strands of racial thought in his //Foundations of the Nineteenth Century// (1899). He championed the concept of biological determinism through race and used the Jews as an example of European racial regeneration, claiming that through genetics, eliminating them could develop a superior race. -In Germany, the writings of Paul de Lagarde and Julius Langbehn stressed the racial and cultural dangers Jews imposed on traditional German national life. This heavily influenced Nazi racial doctrine. -Hitler’s goals: Mein Kampf “My Struggle” (1925)- to bring the entire German people-the //Volk-//as a racial goup together into a single nation, purified by the removal of Jews, an inferior race in Nazi theory. -In 1920, the Nazi party issued its 25-point platform, asserting that no Jew could ever be a member of the German Volk. -Hitler's racial doctrines were inhumane and brutal. Hitler meant to make Europe //Judenrein//, or “free of Jews”. At first he thought of sending them to the island of Madagascar but finally arrived at “the final solution of the Jewish problem”-extermination.by new technology in camps in Germany and Poland. -People who most consistently experienced the terror of the police state were the German Jews. This anti-Semitism was based on biological racial theories stemming from the new bodies of thought. - The Nazi attack occurred in 3 stages: 1) 1933-Jews excluded from civil service. 2) 1935- //Nuremberg Laws//- robbed German Jews (ranging back 3 generations) of citizenship, major professions closed to them, sexual intercourse and marriage prohibited. 1938- Business careers forbidden, //Kristallnacht//- “Night of Broken Glass”: Jewish stores and synagogues burned and destroyed (pogrom). 3) 1941-2- Hitler decided to destroy all Jews in Europe
 * The conservative forces having practiced violent anti-Semitism served to further divide France politically and anti-Jewish violence erupted as the hatred of the forces were inflamed.

III: The Arising of Zionism -Jews have long been associated with money and banking interests, so when capitalism changed the economic structure of Europe in the last third of the 20th century, many non-Jewish Europeans were pressured by the changes and thereby became hostile toward the Jewish community. -Moreover, racial thinkers found that the blood of the Jew caused them to be an alleged danger to their society, no matter the extent to which Jews assimilated themselves and their families into the culture of their country. -Organized German and French Anti-Semitism gave rise to the birth of Zionism, originally a minority movement within the Jewish community, to found a separate Jewish state. -Its founder was an Austro-Hungarian journalist, Theodor Herzl who was shocked when he encountered Parisian mobs shouting "Death to the Jews" during the Dreyfus Affair, and was moved to write //Der Judenstaat// ("The Jewish State) in 1896, starting a movement which would lead to the establishment of the State of Israel, a Jewish national homeland, in 1848. -Herzl believed that the liberal politics and institutions of a liberal state could neither protect European Jews nor ensure they were treated justly. -Herzl directly appealed to economically poor Jews who lived in the ghettos of Eastern Europe and the slums of Western Europe. ~Arielle Koppell =2004 Contrast the impact of nationalism in Germany and the Austrian Empire from 1848 to 1914. = Nationalism arose with great ferocity throughout Europe, affecting a number of countries such as Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, both nations ended up with vastly different results. While nationalistic sentiment in Germany allowed Bismarck, with his kleindeutsch solution, to pursue a unified Germanic state, it consequently hindered both the unity and the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. == > - this solution required Bismarck to carry out intricate diplomatic policies with other countries (Prussia, Russia, and Italy) - populations of the duchies Schleswig-Holstein were a mix of German and Danes - in 1863, the Danish parliament wanted to incorporate both duchies into Denmark - to counteract this, the German confederation proposed an all-German war - Germany and Prussia defeated the Danes together in 1864 - Convention of Gastein --> Austria was given Holstein to administer, while Prussia was put in charge of Schleswig - Bismarck was able to maneuver Prussia and Austria into a war - Bismarck ordered the Prussians to provoke the Austrians - Austria appealed to the German confederation to intervene - Bismarck claimed that Austria’s request violated the Convention of Gastein - Austrian defeat - Treaty of Prague ended the war - established Prussia as the only major power among the German states
 * Bismarck was able to pursue a kleindeutsch policy to unify Germany:**
 * Kleindeutsch solution --> Austria was to be excluded from the united German state
 * The Schleswig-Holstein Problem / The Danish War
 * Bismarck gained Russian sympathy by supporting the suppression of a Polish revolt in 1863
 * 1866, Bismarck managed to create a treaty with Italy wherein Germany promised to give Italy Venetia if Italy attacked Austria in support of Prussia when war broke out
 * The Austro-Prussian War
 * The success of Bismarck’s policy split the Prussian parliament --> nationalism won out, and those who supported unification prevailed. Liberals were crushed.
 * Bismarck eventually completed the unification process by bringing the southern German states into the confederation.
 * The unification of Germany was representative of conservatism, and served as setback to European liberalism
 * Brought Germany into prominence and revealed Austrian weaknesses

> - Ottoman empire was weak and was still held together simply because the other European powers (primarily Russia and Austria) could not decide how to partition it > - Bosnia and Herzegovina rebelled against Ottoman rule > - Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1876, as did Russia, later on, under the foreign policy of pan-Slavism > - Territorial conflict between Bulgaria and Serbia > - Austria-Hungary supported Bulgaria, while Russia supported Serbia > - Ended the Three Emperor’s League > - Conrad von Hotzendorf --> urged an attack on Serbia > - Count Stefan Tisza --> spoke for Hungary, didn’t want to attack > - Count Leopold von Berchtold --> felt the need for strong action
 * Nationalism leading to the deterioration of both the unity and the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary**
 * Rising nationalistic sentiment --> the varying ethnic groups under the control of Austria-Hungary wanted to become their own independent country
 * Pan-Slavism --> movement with a goal of ultimately uniting all Slavs
 * The First Balkan Crisis (1874 - 1878)
 * Congress of Berlin --> Austria-Hungary was given Bosnia and Herzegovina to occupy and administer. This settlement aggravated all of the Balkan states and was a primary problem among the south Slavic states of Serbia and Montenegro, who detested Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * The Second Balkan Crisis (1885)
 * Second Balkan War (1913) --> Serbia attacked Bulgaria
 * Serbia was angry at Austria-Hungary for its support of Bulgaria and its continued occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina
 * Bosnian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife (1914)
 * Those involved in the Austrian dual monarchy could not agree on what course of action to take regarding the assasination:

Stephanie Huynh media type="custom" key="3576698"media type="custom" key="3576726" =2007 To what extent did the structure of Russian government and society affect its economic development in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? In the 18th and 19th centuries, Russian government and society affected the economy because different rulers of Russia had different ways of dealing with the economy. Also, society and social classes were always changing, which caused changes in economic development.=

== =Government= -Tsars did not want to share power -Under Catherine the Great: -1785: Catherine issued charters to nobles and townsmen -The Charter to the Nobility liberated the nobles from service -Gave them rights that not even the autocracy could change -Catherine got the nobility to get more actively involved in economic activity -This increased demand for serf labor -Resulted in increasing exploitation of serfs -Russian republic was of great size and abundant natural resources -Played a big role in economy of the Soviet Union -In first decades of the Soviet regime, resources led to great economic advances -Included: development of mining, metal industry, heavy engineering, expansion of the railway network, and a huge increase in the energy supply -Under Peter the Great: -Port of **Saint-Petersburg ** was founded in 1703 -Increased trade and commerce -Economic breakdown eventually led to Russian Revolution

Society -18th century Russian society was mostly rural -Peasants were largest social group -They lived in poverty -Peasants were attached to landlord, not land -Nobles were only 2-3% of population -They received privileges -Were immune to serious punishments -Owned the land - The Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Husbandry was established in 1765 - Made to consider ways to improve rural economy of the Russian Empire -The society brought together noble landowners, government officials, and scholars -New ideas were presented on rural economic activities, new technologies, and economic ideas -Could be of help to Russia -The society became center of scientific research and activities to improve agriculture -The society served as a bridge between science, agriculture, and reform until shut down during World War I -Russia acquired an outlet to the Black Sea which increases trade: improves economy -Catherine The Great attempted to organize society into social groups. -Having large households: productivity increased -People able to pay taxes -Small households felt insecure -The decreasing labor resulted in small production: Not able to pay tax -People were forced into marriages Jiana Lisi

=2007 "In the second half of the nineteenth century, most European governments were conservative." = =To what extent is the quotation above an accurate statement? Use specific examples from at least TWO countries. = As of the second half of the nineteenth century, numerous regimes across Europe have become moderately similar. One such likeness between the majority of European nations is conservative practices and institutions. Britain and Germany shared this similarity through their prime ministers, Otto von Bismarck and Benjamin Disraeli. Under the rule of these two individuals, the conservative governments of their nations were able to flourish using traditional ideas seen in their day as well as in the past. I. Prussia under the rule of Otto von Bismarck - King Wilhelm I appoints Otto von Bismarck as chancellor in 1862 (junker) - Entered politics as a reactionary but mellowed to a conservative - Bismarck opposed parliamentary government but not constitutionalism that allowed the presence of a strong monarch - He showed his distaste for parliamentary government when he would collect and spend taxes without Parliament’s consent - Realpolitik- Bismarck’s policies and theories were realistic and proved extremely useful over his 19 year reign - Foreign policy- Otto von Bismarck was perhaps the most effective politician of his time especially in foreign policy- he created decent relationships with the majority of European nations including Russia and Austria in the Three Emperors League. However, after he was removed from office by Kaiser Wilhelm II, all this was undone in a Wilhelm’s lust for power - Kulturkampf- Bismarck’s plan for this policy was to weaken the power of the Catholic Center Party through weakening the political authority of the catholic church in Prussia. This is considered Bismarck’s greatest blunder but with his success, it was not truly a bad idea. - Unification of Germany- Pursued a kleindeutsch- Small German solution to unification issuesàThe North German Confederation- all Germany north of the Main River formed a federation under Prussian leadership

II. Great Britain under Benjamin Disraeli’s rule - Disraeli appointed prime minister of Great Britain in 1868 and then again in 1874 (succeeded William Ewart Gladstone) - Believed strongly in paternalistic legislation + state protection of the weak (thought policies would remove class struggles) - Public Health Act of 1875- combined previous sanitation laws + reaffirmed the states ability to interfere with private property if physical well-being is in danger - Artisan’s Dwelling Act of 1875- British government became actively involved in providing housing for the working class - Attempted to convince the Conservative Party to accept a democratic electorate (believed it would vote conservative) - Believed in the value of the class system and traditional institutions (defended the monarchy, House of Lords, + church against liberalism

Harrison Marx media type="custom" key="3577008"media type="custom" key="3577054"media type="custom" key="3577048" =2008 Analyze the major factors responsible for the rise of anti-Semitism in nineteenth century Europe. = There were many reasons for a rise in Anti-Semetism in nineteenth-century Europe. Social Darwinism, the economy, and the Dreyfuss Affair were four major factors in the rise of anti-Semetism in Europe. ==

Social Darwinism:
-Charles Darwin was an English naturalist who wrote of the evolutionary traits of animals in nature

-Certain biologists applied Darwinism to the human race

-"Most fit" humans were able to destroy those less fit

-Jews, as well as blacks and all other non-whites, were considered by ethnocentric Europeans to be the "less fit"

-Social Darwinism was used to explain the inferiority of Jews from "more European" people

-Superior race in Europe was to be protected, especially towards the 20th century with the rise of the Nazi party

- White Europeans were considered more advanced due to more successful armies and technology

-Nationalism contibuted to this exclusivist therory of "races": german race, French race, etc.

Economy:
-Throughout history, economic crises have always resulted in a rise in Anti-Semetism

- Christians in earlier times were not allowed to charge intrest, which led to an association between Jews and banking

-Karl Marx regarded Jews as the creators of evil capitalism, alienating Jews from Marxism and socialism

- Karl Luger, mayor of Austria, was major public official to blame Austria's problems on Jews in Autria

- Jews thought to run all industry, blamed for fall of economy in late 18th century and early 19th century

- Association between Jews and Communism in western Europe due to the high number of Jews in Russia

- Most anti-Semetic economic sanctions were flops, like the failure of German boycott of Jewish businesses in 20th-century Germany.

Dreyfuss Affair:
-Captain Alfred Dreyfuss was a Jewish, French autilliary officer

-Committed of selling French military secrets to the German Army in November 1894

- Set bad example for Jewish military in France

-Dreyfuss banished to French Guinea

- Evidence that Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy was the actual culprit

- New evidence supressed by French officials to make Jews scapegoats for military lossess

-Emilie Zola investagates situation and finds case a sham

-Dreyfuss is put back on trial and found innocent

- Still anti-semetism and bad feelings about Jews

- Even so, French Jews were some of the most well-off in Europe in the 19th century.

-Steven Saltz

2008 Analyze the ways in which TWO of the following groups challenged British liberalism between 1880 and 1914. =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(174, 50, 50); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">Feminists = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(174, 50, 50); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">Irish nationalists = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(174, 50, 50); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">Socialists = During the late 19th and early 18th centuries, there were a few factors that contributed to challenging British liberalism. One was Gladstone’s support of the Irish home rule which lead to a split in the British Liberal Party. Another one of these factors was the rise of political feminism and liberals’ fear that it would lead to more support for the conservative party. == 1 . Gladstone’s support of Irish home rule brought about a split in the Liberal party that was harmful to further social and political reform. -Parnell gave his votes to liberal ministry -home rule issue split the liberal party -Liberals were defeated -Liberals remained permanently divided -Ireland remained strictly under English administration -Second Home Rule Bill passed the House of Commons but was defeated in the House of Lords -Bill had to pass the Commons three times over to the Lords’ veto to become law -3rd passage occurred summer of 1914, but the implementation of the Home Rule Bill was suspended for the duration of WWI
 * 1860 onward- Irish nationalists sought to home rule for Ireland
 * Irish had been rejected home rule 3 or 4 times, making the nationalists more radical
 * 1880-Second Gladstone ministry came to office
 * Charles Stewart Parnell- leader of Irish movement for a just land settlement and for home rule
 * 1881- Second Gladstone ministry passed another land act that strengthened tenant rights (the liberal ministry had previously passed a land act that provided compensation to those Irish tenants who were evicted and loand for those who wished to purchase their lands)
 * Correction Law- passed to restore law and order to Ireland
 * 1885- Parnell organized 85 Irish members of the House of Commons that frequently disrupted Parliament to gain home rule and bargained with the two English political parties
 * 1885- Irish party emerged holding the balance of power between English liberals and conservatives
 * 1885-Gladstone announced his support for home rule for Ireland
 * 1886-Liberals Unionists joined with the conservatives to defeat Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill.
 * New conservative party of Lord Salisbury tried to reconcile the Irish to English govt.
 * 1892-Gladstone returned to power
 * 1903-Land Act sponsored by conservatives and Ireland became a country of small farms
 * 1912- Liberal ministry passed 3rd Home Rule Bill.
 * Normal British domestic issues could not be resolved because of the political divisions created by Ireland

2. Rise of political feminism lead male liberals to fear that granting women the right to vote would benefit political conservatives -believed Parliament would grant women the right to vote only when convinced that they would be respectful and responsible in their political activity -founded Women’s Social and Political Union -her and her followers know as the suffragettes, lobbied publicly and privately for the extension of the vote to women -By 1910, having failed to move the govt. they moved to more violent tactics of arson, window breaking, and sabotage of postal boxes. -Liberal govt. of Henry Asquith imprisoned many of the demonstrators and force fed those who went on hunger strikes in jail. Nbaa Masood
 * Liberal society and its values neither automatically nor inevitably improved the lives of women
 * Anticlerical liberals often had a hard time working with feminists
 * Many women were reluctant in supporting the feminists
 * Some were sensitive to their class and economic interests
 * Others subordinated feminist political issues to national unity and nationalistic patriotism
 * Various social and tactical differences among women led quite often to sharp divisions between the feminists’ own ranks
 * Roman Catholic Feminists were uncomfortable with radical secularist feminists
 * 1792- Mary Wollstonecraft- Vindication of the Rights of Woman
 * John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor- The Subjection of Women
 * Socialist criticism of capitalist society often, included a harsh indictment of the social and economic position to which women had been relegated.
 * Millicent Fawcett- led the moderate National Union of Women’s Suffrage Society
 * Emmeline Pankhurst- led much more radical branch of British feminists
 * Govt. refused to extend the franchise until 1918 as a result of their contribution to war effort

media type="custom" key="3577108"media type="custom" key="3577118"media type="custom" key="3577128" <span style="display: block; color: rgb(174, 50, 50); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2008 Analyze the similarities and differences in the methods used by Cavour and Bismarck to bring about the unification of Italy and Germany, respectively. Cavour of Italy and Bismark of Germany had similar approaches to unification of their countries in that they both engaged in warfare to add land to their countries as an aid in unification. They were similar also in their skills at using negotiation and alliances to attain international respect and unification. These leaders differed, however, in the internal policies employed to achieve unification. Bismarck had a clear cut plan on what to do with a unified Germany, while Cavour’s main focus was only unification. __**Similarities in Warfare**__ Bismarck, the Prussian Prime Minister, chose to engage in three major wars. The Schleswig-Holstein Wars, the Austro-Prussian War and the Franco Prussian War all had Germany in the middle of the action. Common motive of these wars was to expand his nation. Germany acquired Schleswig, Alsace and part of Lorraine Wanted to show the strength of the Germans and gain German territories from foreign countries. His victories expanded his territory and resulted in unification by the inclusion of Germans in formerly foreign countries as Germans. Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont sent his troops northward from the south of Italy which resulted in the expansion of Italian territory. Teamed up with Garibaldi, whose troops were coming in from the north. Piedmont provoked war with Austria and won, sending them out of the north. Cavour’s troops conquered the Papal States except area around Rome. Met up with Garibaldi and his troops in central Italy and discussed how Italy should be governed.
 * Cavour and Bismarck both added land through wars that helped to unify their countries.**

Cavour made agreements with rival countries, like Austria to ensure peace for his developing nation. Chose to enter the Crimean War to be a part of peace negotiation and bring Italy into European politics. Impressed other European countries at the Treaty of Paris. Gained international respect as well thanks to Giuseppe Mazzini. Bismarck would also make agreements with powerful countries, including Austria and France. After being in many wars, Bismarck’s plan for unification took steps forward, as Germany began to establish itself as a great power. Gained much respect like Cavour’s Italy.
 * Similarities in Diplomacy**
 * Bismark and Cavour both made alliances and gained international respect to aid in unification**

Cavour’s number one concern was to reach unification. Wanted a monarchy for Italy, and turned down Garibaldi’s idea for a republic. Believed material and economic bonds should unite Italy. Wanted free trade, railway construction, credit expansion and agricultural improvement. Bismarck had a clearer cut plan for Germany once it was unified. Believed in a system called Blood and Iron, where war was used to enforce laws and industrialization was a key cog in Germany. Wanted a strong industrial base. Used a harsh system known as realpolitik, which meant that he would do whatever was necessary for the advancement of Germany. The Ems Telegram, part of realpolitik, showed that Bismark was more of a ruthless leader who was willing do anything in the Franco Prussian War. Opposed parliamentary government and wanted a strong, dynamic monarch.
 * Differences in Internal Policies****: Bismarck had a clear cut plan on what to do with a unified**
 * Germany, while Cavour’s main focus was only unification.**


 * Jon Schwartz**