17th+Century+Absolutism



media type="custom" key="3528686"media type="custom" key="3528694" =1978 “Every successful revolution puts on in time the robes of the tyrant it has deposed.” Evaluate this statement with regard to the English Revolution (1640-1660). the French Revolution (1789-1515), and the Russian Revolution (1917-1930). = From Charles I to Cromwell, Louis XIV to Robespierre, and Nicholas II to Lenin, the attempt to overthrow a king in the English Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Russian Revolution resulted merely in the rise of a new absolutist ruler.

=1- English Revolution=

- Reigning King Charles I unpopular with English people - Charles levied taxes and duties without Parliament’s approval - Parliament met in 1628 furious over illegal taxes - Charles made peace with France and Spain, angering English people - English upset with alliances with Catholic nations - Parliament divided on where to take religious reform - Division in Parliament allowed Charles to reassert power - Parliament wrote “Grand Remonstrance,” problems with Charles’s rule - January 1642 Charles invaded Parliament, begins to raise army - War began in August 1642 - Charles I captured 1642, beheaded 1649 - “Prides Purge” created Rump Parliament, a minority who abolished the monarchy - Oliver Cromwell conquered Scotland and Ireland - Cromwell disbanded Parliament in 1653, ruling thereafter as “Lord Protector” - Military dictatorship from 1653 to Cromwell’s death in 1658 - An attempt to force out the King resulted in an even harsher dictatorship

=2- French Revolution=

- Reigning King Louis XIV - Asserted authority and ruled by decree - Louis taxed entirely by decree - Called Estates General to save the monarchy that was sure to collapse - Revolts in Paris and throughout the countryside -National Assembly issued declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, limiting the power of the monarchy - January 1793 Louis XIV beheaded after being committed of treason - Committee of Public Safety set up by the National Convention in 1973 - Robespierre began to rule the Committee of Public Safety, gaining more and more executive power as time went on - Robespierre becomes an absolutist ruler with complete executive power - An attempt to rive out Louis XIV resulted in the rise of a dictator with even greater power, Robespierre.

=3- Russian Revolution= - Protesters send petition to Tsar Nicholas II, troops open fire, day becomes known as “Bloody Sunday” - Parties illegal under Nicholas come out into the open, begin failed Revolution of 1905 - Nicholas sets up Duma, a parliamentary legislative body in response to 1905 revolution - Lenin failed at an attempt to seize power in July 1917 - That same year the Bolsheviks overthrew Tsar Nicholas’s government - Lenin rose to power as leader of the Bolsheviks - Lenin becomes dictator or Soviet Russia as a way to help the cause of the workers - Jozseph Stalin rises to power after Lenin, becomes even crueler, more authoritarian - An attempt to rid Russia of leader Czar Nicholas led to the rise of even more authoritarian leaders Lenin and Stalin

Steven Saltz

media type="custom" key="3566332" = = = = =1991 Analyze the military, political, and social factors that account for the rise of Prussia between 1640-1786. = From the mid-1700s to the late 1800s Prussia emerged as a major European power due to a dramatic shift in continental alliances resulting in British support of Prussia, Frederick William II the Great’s search for reform, and the emergence of a large and powerful Prussian army evoking fear in other powers across the continent. -December 16, 1740: War of the Austrian Succession -French aid to Prussia consolidated a new powerful state in Germany -French moving against Austria brought Britain into the war as Britain wanted to prevent France from attaining the Low Countries -In 1744, the British-French conflict expanded beyond European borders as France moved to help Spain against the British in the New World -1756- Great shift in alliances took place in what is known as the diplomatic revolution -Prussia and Great Britain signed the Convention of Westminster which was a defensive alliance aimed at preventing the entry of foreign troops into the Germanies -When France and Austria allied with Sweden, Russia, and many other German states to destroy Prussia: -Frederick sought reforms to improve Prussia after it’s suffering and near defeat during the mid-century wars -Directed new attention to Prussian agriculture -Frederick established land-mortgage credit Association -Continued Hohenzollern policy of toleration -Rationalized the existing legal system: -Frederick was known as “the first servant of the state” -Frederick William the Great Elector- recognized that a strong, standing Prussian army with an elite officer corps was the key to a powerful state -Frederick William I- more than doubled the size of his army to 90,000 -Frederick William II the Great- expanded army to 150,000 -Prussian kings sought to gain support of Junkers (wealthy land aristocrats) by granting them a virtual monopoly over the selection of officers -1733- cadet school established in Berlin to train the sons of Junkers to be officers -This sudden rise of powerful militarism in Prussia evoked fear in other European nations Nbaa Masood
 * __ *Shift of alliances during the Diplomatic Revolution: __**
 * Frederick the Great of Prussia invades Silesia opening the conflict with Austria by disturbing the Pragmatic Sanction
 * Great Britain was now with Prussia instead of Austria
 * France was now with Austria as a result of a defensive alliance
 * Britain furnished considerable financial support that saved Prussia
 * __ *Frederick II the Great sought recovery and consolidation of Prussia post mid-century wars __**
 * for the first time in Prussia, potatoes and turnips were produced
 * allowed Catholics and Jews to settle in his predominantly Lutheran country and protected Catholics living in Silesia
 * virtually always appointed government and army positions to Protestants
 * made it more efficient
 * eliminated regional peculiarities
 * reduced aristocratic influence
 * __ *Materialization of a predominant Prussian Army __**
 * added a trained reserve of conscripted peasants, forming one of the most modern and efficient fighting units in 18th century Europe
 * heavy taxes supported the army

media type="custom" key="3528724"media type="custom" key="3528730" = = =1993 Describe and analyze the changes in the role of Parliament in English politics between the succession of James I and the Glorious Revolution. = Parliament’s traditional power of the purse and its involvement in the choice of the dominant religion made it an important institution in Seventeenth century England.The beginning of the period between the succession of James I and the Glorious Revolution of 1688 was characterized by the exercise of monarchical power over Parliament. With the support of Parliament, the monarchy was abolished under Cromwell, who tried, unsuccessfully, to control and minimize the role of Parliament. Parliamentary power was again on the rise with the restoration of the monarchy of James II, and reached a new high point upon the ascension of William and Mary. __**Parliament’s Power over the Purse:**__ Monarchs attempt to circumvent Parliament’s traditional power to appropriate money by imposing various tax schemes. At the end of the period, Parliament prevailed and the monarch lost the right to impose taxes without consent of Parliament. • James I and Charles I raise money without Parliament Because of peace during the rule of James I, he needed less money. Parliament therefore had less power James I avoids Parliament control over pursue by raising funds through “impositions” Also used tonnage and poundage, old customs to raise money. 1634 institution of the “Ship Tax” which was extended beyond the coast to pay for naval protection. To raise money for unpopular war with Spain which Parliament would not support, Charles I levied tariffs and duties and tried to collect old taxes. Also imposed the “forced loan.” Petition of Right said monarch needed the consent of Parliament to levy taxes and loans. • Cromwell's Rise to Power Rose to power because of the resentments raised by the abuses of power by James I and Charles I. • Post-Cromwell: Charles II and James II • Charles II required greater revenues than Parliament appropriated which eroded the early support of Parliament. Imposed custom duties to raise funds • Glorious Revolution • Parliament exercises control over purse by not allowing for imposition of taxes without consent of Parliament

__**Parliament and Religion:**__ Religious division among Church of England and Puritans the detection of plots to restore Catholicism to England led Parliament to distrust the Monarchy and to pass laws to prevent the monarchy from restoring the Catholic Church. In the end of the period, religious toleration prevailed • James I Millinery Petition; rise of Puritans rejected by James Issued the Book Of Sports, angered the Puritans again. • Charles I Parliament defines religious changes that led to “popery” as treason. Parliament wanted to limit royal prerogative. Religious policies against the Puritans sparked a war with Scotland which required funding, so Charles had to call Parliament. Parliament was against Charles’ support of Book of Common Prayer and feared the influence of his Catholic wife. Long Parliament (1640-1660) is split on religious issue raised by moderate and extreme Puritans and those who wanted to maintain the English Church as it existed. Division in Parliament results in Civil War. Cromwell • Parliament divided along religious lines. Presbyterians who were a majority were barred from being seated by Pride, leaving the “rump” Parliament • did not take sides but established a majority church; allowed Protestants to worship Charles II • Religious tension between Charles II and Parliament. Parliament reacted to Charles II’s Catholic sympathies by enacting the Clarendon Code, excluding Roman Catholics, Presbyterians and Independents from everyday life in the nation. • Parliament issues the “Test Act, a requirement that no Roman Catholic could ever meet. James II • alienated Parliament by insisting on repeal of the Test Act. Appointed known Catholics to high positions in Parliament. • Declaration of Indulgence in 1687, all who opposed it were kicked out of Parliament and replaced by Catholics. Glorious Revolution • Bill of Rights prohibited Roman Catholics from occupying throne. • Toleration Act of 1689 permits worship by Protestants and Roman Catholics

In the beginning of the period, James I exercised complete domination over English politics. Parliament was dissolved at will the will of the monarch who acted alone. Charles I’s continuation of the policy angered Parliament and led to the rise of its power and the rule of Cromwell. Cromwell’s attempt to dominate power over Parliament led to his downfall and the restoration fo the power of the Monarchy. Monarchical abuses of Charles II and James II led again to the rise of Parliamentary power. The shift in power was completed by the Glorious Revolution and the ascension of William and Mary who agreed to political reforms and the recognized that powers could not be exercised without consent of Parliament. • James I Governs by favorites; Parliament meets only when summoned • Charles I “Petition of Right”established Constitutional freedoms - Parliament meets in 1628 and declares no forced loans or taxes without consent of Parliament Charles enacts the “Thorough,” which gives power to King to rule without Parliament Exercise of individual rights: no freeman to be imprisoned without cause; no troops to be quartered Charles exercises his power and reacts by dissolving Parliament in 1640 (short Parliament). Rise of power over Monarch: Long Parliament (1640-1660): Parliament acting together and with support. Parliament declares that it cannot be dissolved without its consent. Abolished Court of Star Chamber, Court of High Commission and the Thorough.. Parliament declares that it will meet at least every three years and cannot be dissolved without consent. • Cromwell Helped in his rise to initial power by the support of Parliament over the Monarch; dissolution of the Monarchy by the Rump Parliament (after “Pride’s Purge” only 50 members remained) • When Parliament wanted to disband Cromwell’s army, Cromwell dissolved Parliament and ruled as “Lord Protector” of a non-monarchical Puritan Republic until 1660 Charles II • After death of Cromwell, Parliament rises to power again and strongly supports the return of the monarchy, but there was no requirement that Parliament be summoned James II • Dissolved Parliament when it balked on the repeal of the Test Act. Glorious Revolution • After James II fled, Parliament declared the monarchy vacant and made William and Mary monarchs • It was agreed that England’s monarchs would need the consent of Parliament to rule. Parliament would be called every three years. • Bill of Rights guaranteeing civil liberties for upper classes • Act of Settlement passed by Parliament provides for the succession of the next Monarch, establishing Parliament’s role.
 * __Parliament as an Institution/Relation to Monarchy__**

Jon Schwartz

media type="custom" key="3566346"

= = =1999 Machiavelli suggested that a ruler should have behave both “like a lion,” and “like a fox.” Analyze the policies of TWO of the following European rulers, indicating the degree to which they successfully followed Machiavelli’s suggestion =

=Elizabeth I of England = =Henry IV of France = =**__Catherine the Great of Russia__** = =**__Frederick II of Prussia__** = = = France's Henry IV and England's Elizabeth I both share the ideals necessary to be a prosperous ruler; that is ruling "like a fox" and "like a lion," according to Machiavelli. This can be seen by Elizabeth I and her actions to secure prosperity in England by staying neutral in the country, that is, not taking sides with Protestants and Catholics for the better of the country, or, declaring herself as supreme ruler or assassinating another ruler to secure her position on the throne. This also can be seen by Henry IV of France when he issued the Edict of Nantes and practiced other forms of religious toleration. 1. Elizabeth’s rule "like a fox" a. Elizabeth merged a centralized Episcopal system, which she firmly controlled, where as a result; inflexible religious extremes were not permitted. b. She hoped to avoid both Catholic and protestant extremism at the official level by pursuing a middle way. c. She did not take Phillip II’s hand in marriage and did not follow the path of her deceased sister, Mary I, a prominent Catholic that was harsh against Protestants. d. She executed fewer Catholics during her forty-five years on the throne than Mary Tudor had executed Protestants during her brief five-year reign.
 * __ The rule of Elizabeth I and her actions taken to increase prosperity in England __**
 * In this way she would be neutral, not have to pick sides and therefore avoid confrontation between he Protestants and Catholics.
 * This shows Elizabeth’s superiority in that she avoided taking one side so that their could be more peace; not following her sisters reign, and did not take Phillip’s hand in marriage which may have led to her demise because she would then be under his rule. Also, if Elizabeth married Phillip II, she would have been forced to become catholic because Spain was one of the major Catholic countries in Europe.

2. Elizabeth’s rule "like a lion" a. In 1509 an Act of Supremacy passed Parliament repealing all the anti-protestant legislation of Mary Tudor and asserting Elizabeth’s right as “supreme ruler.” b. The issuance of the Thirty-Nine Articles on Religion in 1563 made a moderate Protestantism the official religion within the Church of England. c. The Conventicle Act o 1593 gave separatists the option of either conforming to the practices of the Church of England or facing exile or death. d. In 1568, a public scandal forced Mary, queen of Scotts’ abdication and flight toe her cousin in England. Because of Mary’s clear claim to the English throne, she remained a symbol of Catholic England. Her execution by Elizabeth I, dashed all Catholic hopes for a bloodless reconversion of Catholic England.
 * This shows how Elizabeth was in fact fierce as well and was willing of going to the extreme extent to accomplish her goals.
 * This was a very bold move, but it was needed in that she knew that these separatists, or raged puritans, were not going to stop their strive for Protestantism to completely overtake Catholicism. If she did not make this act, there would had been a disruption in the peace among her nation.

1. Henry’s rule "like a lion” a. His finance minister, The Duke of Sully, reformed the tax collection system to make it more equitable and efficient, improved transportation, stimulated trade and industry, and fostered prosperity. b. The Edict of Nantes of 1598, granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship in 150 fortified towns. c. Henry was liked by the people because of his informal dress and a strong wit and charm. He received the likings of the individuals because of these ways.
 * __ Policies of Henry IV of France that led to his accomplishments __**
 * All of these accomplishments increased the privilege and the power of the monarchy. Now that the monarchy has more power, Henry can focus more on details than on maintaining his power. This was one way Henry IV acted fierce to obtain his goals.
 * This is just one example of how Henry IV practiced religious toleration. This was not widely practiced by many leaders so it brought up some conflict. However, Henry was a fierce ruler and followed his beliefs.
 * This was a bold move for him because he was already being pressured by Spain for the throne. However, he was knew what he was going to do to achieve peace by ruling France.

2. Henry’s Rule "like a fox” a. Henry spoke the words, “Paris is worth a Mass.” He knelt before the archbishop of Bourges and easy received into the Roman Catholic Church not because he was a found believer in Catholicism, but for the prosperity of France he sacrificed the religious principles. b. Henry IV was a politique. He believed that the restoration of strong monarchy could reverse the trend toward collapse. Simply put, no religious creed was worth the destruction of peace in the nation. From this belief, many of the politiques, including Henry, accepted Huguenots and practiced religious toleration.
 * This was very important in that it showed how Henry was wise and knew that if he followed the rules, his outcome would be far greater, and it was. He accomplished peace among the nation because of various practices of Religious toleration.

Gregory Perrier

media type="custom" key="3528748" media type="custom" key="3528758" = = =2003 Louis XIV declared his goal "one king, one law, one faith." = =Analyze the methods the king used to achieve this objective and discuss the extent to which he was successful. = Frace's international influence during the 16th and early 17th centuries could not have been achieved without the policies of Louis XIV. In pursuing "one king, one law, one faith," Louis would assert himself as a strong, individual ruler, impose unchallenged, uniform laws on France, and re-affirm Roman Catholicism as the only religion of France. 1- One King 2- One Law 3- One Faith Derek Sekuler.
 * Louis was a firm believer in divine right. He believed that as a ruler, he was responsible to God alone.
 * These beliefs were instilled in Louis by his childhood tutor Bishop Bossuet.
 * “L’etat c’est moi” (I am the state)- Louis’ quote which expressed his belief that he personified the entire nation of France
 * Unlike his predecessors, he had no single chief minister that would have greatly influenced his policies.
 * Instead, he divided responsibilities between two or three “lesser” ministers that only held influence in their areas (ex. Colbert- economy, Lovouis- war)
 * Upon becoming full ruler, he was quick to take power away from Cardinal Mazarin and his mother Anne of Austria who had ruled as regents during his childhood.
 * As a result of the Fronde, Louis hated “kings of straw” or weak rulers. This led him to pursue a strong, centralized monarchy.
 * Louis and his staff were masters of propaganda and the use of political images. These skills were used to showcase his power to others.
 * In these respects, he was successful in achieving his goal of “one king.”
 * Louis used the intendant system to supervise nobles and limit their power.
 * He built the extravagant Palace of Versailles to house the nobles and take away their power and influence.
 * As the nobles were living luxurious lives, Louis enforced national law in areas of previous noble jurisdiction.
 * Louis carefully managed all nobles to ensure their loyalty, making sure that there would be no efforts to undermine his laws.
 * Without a single chief minister, nobles who rebelled would be seen as going directly against the king. That fact would certainly discourage noble or peasant uprisings.
 * Louis didn’t allow traditional parlements or provincial governors to have any national influence. He specifically took away almost all power from the Parlement of Paris.
 * Louis increased the amount of nobles who would pay taxes.
 * In 1667, Louis established the //Grande Ordonnance de Procédure Civile// or the Code Louis. This was an extensive legal code which regulated civil procedures in all of France. For the first time, the exact same laws were enforced in all of France. The Code Louis also took several powers away from the Church. (The Code Louis would also be the basis of the Napoleonic Code)
 * As Louis was able to enforce uniform law throughout France and take away power from those who could have otherwise influenced law policies, Louis was successful in achieving “one law.”
 * Louis believed that religious uniformity was key to keeping political unity.
 * Louis first suppressed the Jansenists. Jansenism had risen in the 1630s as a Catholic opposition to the theology and influence of the Jesuits.
 * After the Papacy banned Jansenism in 1656, Louis permitted the same papl bull to be enforced in France. Louis went so far as to close down Jansenist communities.
 * Jansenism was such a broad from of Catholocism that it had attracted interest from the Protestant Huguenots. In suppressing it, Louis lost his best hope for peaceful religious unity.
 * Following the Jansenists, Louis targeted the Huguenots. He started by banning them from government office and excluding them from several professions. He also targeted Huguenots through selective taxation. Hueguenots were even forced to quarter troops in their homes. Some were forced to become galley slaves.
 * In 1685, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes. Protestant churches and schools were closed, their ministers exiled, and Protestant children were baptized. Nonconverting Protestants were drawn into slavery.
 * Many Huguenots left France and would fight against Louis in later wars.
 * Louis became viewed as a new Philip II who wished for a Catholic re-conquest of Europe. These domestic religious policies would create several enemies in Europe.
 * Through suppression Louis was, for the most part, successful in achieving “one faith.”

media type="custom" key="3566358" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(217,0,255); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; background-color: rgb(0,176,255); text-align: center;"> = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(217,0,255); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; background-color: rgb(0,176,255); text-align: center;">2004 Compare and contrast the ways that seventeenth century absolute monarchs and twentieth century dictators gained and maintained their power. =

=
When rising to power, the seventeenth century absolute monarchs, such as France's Louis XIV and Britain's James I and Charles were crowned as blood heirs to the thrown, ruling by theory of divine right, whereas twentieth century dictators, like Mussolini and Hitler rose to power through intimidation, terror and popular appeal. Figures from both time frames wished to remain in strong power until their death, thus both attempting to eliminate or undermine opposing institutions and parties that could cause a dip in power. ===== i. Louis XIV- 1. Came to power after Louis XIII with intention of ruling with “divine right” (the doctrine that kings derive their right to rule directly from God and are not accountable to their subjects) 2. Came to power after period of turmoil, known as the Frondé. Due to this time of anarchy and chaos, his return to Paris was welcomed and his place at the palace was guaranteed. *Slightly similar, in a small part, to how 20th century dictators rose. ii. The Stuarts 1. After Elizabeth died without an heir, the son of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, James I, came to the British throne, being the next blood relative to succeed Elizabeth. 2. James I consolidated his power by summoning Parliament whenever he wishes, which set a precedent for his successors. i. Mussolini- 1. Similar to the time after the Fronde, 1912-1921- Italy has considerable internal turmoil, and neither a parliament nor constitutional government seemed it could handle it. 2. Thus forming local squads of terrorists who disrupted Socialists Party meetings, and attacked strikers 3. His and his followers, called fascists, used intimidation through arson, beatings, and murder against local officials to gain power- thus ended up controlling local government in much of northern Italy. 4. Through his intimidation, the King, Victor Emmanuel yielded to Mussolini’s charge and appointed him Prime minister, and soon granted him temporal **dictorial power** ii. Hitler 1. Germany in a period of catastrophic inflation and turmoil. 2. His party, National Socialist German Working Party, appealed to many people, especially war veterans, thus using them as his key “storm troopers” to gain good and uniforms 3. Before taking control of the government, the Nazis used terror and intimidation in order for them to take control of the government. (Attacked socialists and communists, and represented anyone who showed contempt for the current law and government 4. After being arrested for pulling an unsuccessful putsch, Hitler wrote “Mein Kampf” in order to grab power by legal means. i. Louis XIV- Sun King- L’état, C’est moi. 1. Ruled without a single chief ministers, this it made revolt more difficult, because revolting meant that it would be a direct insult to the King. This also heightened political image. 2. Strategies like propaganda were used to impress upon French people; Louis made sure the nobles would benefit from his rule so that there would be no reason for them to be discontented with his rule. *Great influence over nobility; undermined use of nobility by using them as intendants as Versailles thus they wouldn’t have time to criticize him. 3. Defended royal absolute power through divine right; Bishop Jaques-Benigine Bousset provided examples from old testament which supported Louis’s ruing by divine right. 4. Suppressed Janesists in order to achieve a uniform religion, thus decreasing the probability of a discontented rebellion. ii. Stuarts- 1. After James I’s precendent, Chalres I used many extraparliamnety means to fund for England. 2. Parliament refused to “open the wallet” for the country thus, at the onset of this reign, Charles undermined the Parliament by not working with them, nor getting their approval for some of his meansure (new taces, forced load, land tax, quartering troops in homes) *this also challenged the power of nobles and landowners 3. The Stuarts’ attempt at maintaining absolute power failed as evidenced from the civil war, thus after the restoration Parliament had a greater influence in the monarchy. i. Mussolini 1. In power, his success was due to the impotence of his rivals, his effective use of office, his power of the majority, and his ruthlessness 2. 1924- got popular vote to receive 2/3 of the chairs in the chamber of deputies, knowing that it would be Fascists—eventually 1926- allowed Mussolini to rule by decree 3. Fascist Party dominated every political level- outlawed all other parties, this only Fascism could be looked to 4. Those who opposed him were driven to exile or murder; felt that he had saved people from their fears or Bolshevism ii. Hitler 1. Oversaw one of the largest infrastructure-improvement campaigns (construction of dozens of dams, autobahns, railroads ) 2. Due to the fact that the socialist and Christian Democrat parties were unable to maintain a ruling coalition, many people (including conservatives) looked to support Hitler in an attempt to avoid a communist takeover 3. Terrorism- put the Reichstag building on fire… use it as a pretext to order emergency powers 4. Replaced Labior Unions with Nazi labor organizations; strikes were outlawed, and factories were put under the management of Nazi Labor Officials.
 * 1) Differences in gaining power; easy for 17th century monarchs; difficult for 20th century dictators, yet there was similar characteristics.
 * 2) Seventeenth Century Monarchs
 * 1) Twentieth Century Dictators
 * 1) Maintaining power was difficult for all powers, yet it in both time periods, undermining institutions such as parliament or legal parties were key for success.
 * 2) 17th
 * 1) 20th

Karishma Sabhnani

media type="custom" key="3528796"media type="custom" key="3528802" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(217,0,255); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; background-color: rgb(0,176,255); text-align: center;"> = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(255,160,0); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; background-color: rgb(200,0,255); text-align: center;">2008 Analyze the methods and degrees of success of Russian political and social reform from the period of Peter the Great (1689-1725) through Catherine the Great (1762-1796). =
 * Thesis:** __Both Catherine II of Russia and Peter I of Russia legislated a host of political and social reforms. Peter the Great's reforms, although improved Russia's economy and army, removed very much tradition and culture from Russia, and Catherine the Great gained very much land and power for Russia, but ultiamtely ended up suppressing the peasantry.__


 * Peter the Great's Westernization of Russia:**


 * Peter the Great took a tour of western Europe to see the (what he considered to be) far more advanced culture. Bringing this back, he forced the Russian nobles to conform to the look and style of western nobles. He forced them to either cut off their "strange" traditional beards (or pay a hefty fine - The Decree on Shaving, 1705) and forced them to wear breeches, as opposed to the long-kept flowing robes (the Decree on Western Dress, 1701).
 * Some Boyars (Russian nobles) were angered and upset by Peter's decrees, inspiring some hate for the czar.
 * Peter implemented a new Russian Orthodox church hierarchy in which the position of the Patriarch was removed. In its stead, he instituted a High Synod, appointed by the Czar.
 * In 1702, Peter issued several decrees that allowed women to mingle freely with men and to attend social events, following the tradition of western Europe.
 * Following the actions of nobles in western Europe, Peter forced the sons of nobles to attend boarding schools for five years in an attempt to produce as educated nobles as western Europe had (or at least, how peter saw them).
 * Peter also made some changes that were failures in the eyes of many Russians. He imposed a new conscription deal and changed the processes of the army, effectively making being recruited a death sentence.
 * Peter's reforms concerning agriculture were weak and hardly able to be enforced. This was due to the vast amount of farmland covering Russia (making the influence of the czar hard to extend) and the feudal attitude remaining that peasants should be loyal to the lord.


 * Peter the Great's Political Empowering of Russia:**


 * In his trip across Europe, peter viewed the naval and military arrangements of the major powers. He dreamed to have as much power as he perceived the western European countries to have, so he reorganized the Russian army following the plans of those he saw.
 * In 1724, Peter the Great imposed a Soul Tax to fund this newly reorganized army, which was a heavy unbiased (equal) poll tax on all adult males. Then, with enough funds, he pushed to expand into the south (Ottoman Empire) and the northwest (Sweden).
 * In January 1699, local governments of towns were allowed to elect their own officials. Three years later in 1702, another law decided that towns would be governed by an elective board, which replaced the old system of elected sheriffs, and, in 1724, the czar decided that towns could govern themselves through elected guilds of better citizens.
 * Peter moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to Saint Petersburg, a symbol of Russia moving from 'old' to 'new.' With this, he moved the entire royal court and built a palace for the nobles to stay in, much like the Versailles of France.
 * Catherine The Great's Social Reforms:**


 * Catherine was the first Enlightened ruler of Russia, and she brought the Enlightenment's ideals to many aspects of government and Russian life.
 * The Enlightenment highly valued education. Following this principle, she opened many schools and hired many teachers, providing basic education to many Russian citizens.
 * She greatly encouraged the publication of books that conveyed the wealth of ideas that stemmed from the enlightenment.
 * Catherine removed all land owned by the church and transferred it to government ownership. She also made all priests swear loyalty to the government.
 * Catherine repealed much of her reforms and reformative legislation after the French Revolution, and a little after the Pugachev Rebellion. She repealed the publication of Enlightened books, suppressed the peasantry, and stopped communicating with many major Enlightenment figures.
 * Catherine's Political Manoeuvrings**


 * In the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1768 to 1774, Catherine the Great became the first Russian ruler to secure a warm water port (in the Black Sea).
 * Catherine utilised the army that Peter the Great created to expand Russia, giving Russian land-owning Boyars even more land, which means more power.
 * Catherine the Great led Russia during the partitioning of Poland, giving the country much more land in the main European area. In addition, she headed Russia's expansion into the south, into Mongolia and into Kazakshtan.
 * All in all, Catherine made Russia a far more formidable power, although she did ultimately reduce the rights of the peasantry.

Yusuf Sheth <-Not Loser #2. .