Commercial+Revolution+&+Emergence+of+Territorial+States

media type="custom" key="3547280" =1990 In 1519 Charles of Hapsburg became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Discuss and analyze the political, social, and religious problems he faced over the course of his imperial reign (1519-1556). = = The reign of Charles V from 1519 to 1556 was tainted with a vast array of internal and external affairs that greatly damaged the emperor’s ability to rule. The Habsburg-Valois wars and issues with the Ottoman Turks caused much political strife, and took needed attention away from the ongoing and possibly more out of control situation occurring within Hapsburg lands. These internal religious and social troubles stemmed most directly from the Protestant Reformations and its outlying effects, which included violent peasant revolts. The combined pressure of these conflicts greatly weakened and weathered Charles V and led to his early abdication in 1556 at the age of fifty five. = **//__I. The Protestant Reformation and the Peasant Revolt Causing Much Religious and Social Issues for Charles V__//** · October 31, 1517 Martin Luther posted 95 theses on church door in Wittenberg · Charles V elected 2 years later, asked Luther to recant at the Diet of Worms in April 1521, where Luther declined · First major problem of Charles V’s reign · Luther excommunicated on Jan 23, 1521 · Luther believed in justification by faith alone, and attacked indulgences · Indulgence= a remission of the temporal penalty imposed by priests on penitents as a “work of satisfaction” for their moral sins · Indulgences were sold to raise money for the church, sold on false pretense that they would free ancestors from purgatory and save them from hell, sending them into heaven · Zwingli in Switzerland, Calvin in France, also contributed to continual religious reform, as well as Anabaptists and antitrinitarians · Radical new religious views caused peasants to go into a frenzy, starting a revolt against German princes, supported by Charles V, crushed rebellion, 70,000-100,000 peasants killed · 1547, imperial armies crushed protestant forces of the Shmalkaldic League (Lutheran defensive alliance against catholic advances) · Charles V forced established puppet rule in Saxony and Hesse, issued Augsburg Interim, ordering all protestants to revert to old Catholic beliefs and practices · However, Reformation was too entrenched to be stopped by brute force and imperial decree · Weary from three decades of war, Charles V forced to relent, after suffering defeat b protestant armies 1552, Charles reinstated Lutheran religious freedoms in the Peace of Passau · Peace of Augsburg 1555, recognized ruler of a land would determined its religion, officially recognized Lutherans ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Calvinists would not receive recognition until Treaty of Westphalia 1648 ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> 1526 Turks overran Hungary at the Battle of Mohacs, drawing nearer to Habsburg lands ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Also 1526, French League of Cognac formed against Charles V for 2nd Habsburg-Valois wars ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Four times between 1521 and 1559 Habsburg dynasty of Spain fought against the Valois dynasty of France ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Fought over territories in Italy and along their borders, Habsburg lands acquired by the marriage of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, Charles V’s paternal grandparents ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Majority of the fighting occurred in Germany and Italy, easily devastating the region and helping to prevent the unifications of either, which was one of the French motives for the war ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> These foreign issues prevented Charles from fighting against the internal strife caused by Luther and the Reformation, one of the main reasons why it was successful ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Wars ended with the signing of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559, three years after the 1556 abdication of Charles V Scott Dunaisky
 * //__II.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> The Habsburg-Valois Wars and Ottoman Turks as a Cause of Political Strife During the Reign of Charles V__//**

media type="custom" key="3528122"media type="custom" key="3528150" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;"> = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">1993 In 1490 there was no such country as Spain, yet within a century it had become the most powerful nation in Europe and within another had sunk to the status of a third rate power. Describe and analyze the major social, economic, and political reasons for Spain’s rise and fall. = Several factors attribute to the rise and fall of Spain, such as the social, economic, and political blunders of the Spanish monarchy and aristocracy, however their great achievements as well.

I. Social, economic, and political __achievements__ of Spanish monarchy


 * The marriage of Queen Isabella of Castille and King Ferdinand of Aragon was an extremely advantageous marriage to both, although more so for Ferdinand. Castille was more powerful, larger, wealthier, and had a larger population.
 * However, this marriage brought the two monarchies together and as a result, the powerful nation of Spain was formed, and Spain's rise to power had begun
 * Queen Isabella agreed to fund Christopher Columbus's voyages of exploration which eventually led to the discovery of the Americas. The Spanish conquistadors Cortes and Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Inca empires. The Aztecs were conquered through a means of divide and conquer
 * The Spanish then enslaved the native populations and began exploiting the precious metal supplies in the Americas.
 * King Phillip II used his bullion of precious metals to pay bankers, mercenaries, and fund his military incursions, especially in the Netherlands
 * King Philip II not only made life difficult for American natives, but he made life difficult for Spain's own peasantry as well. Spanish peasants paid taxes higher than anywhere else in Europe. Their labor was the very foundations of Spanish hegemony, but did not benefit from it at all.
 * A great political achievement of Philip II was that he organized a sort of Intendant system, as used in France by many monarchs, including the powerful Louis XIV
 * A Holy League consisting of Spain, Venice, and the pope, led by Philip II's half brother, Don John of Austria, the illegitimate son of Charles V, engaged in the largest naval confrontation of the century, and defeated the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Lepanto.
 * Spain not only had naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, empires in the Americas, but also annexed Portugal, and along with it, more empires in the Americas, Africa, and India. Spain was at the height of its power, with extreme wealth, huge empires, and the most powerful navy in Europe..

II. Social, economic, and political __blunders__ of the Spanish monarchy


 * Spain's King Phillip II had spent huge amounts of time and resources both economic and military in establishing and maintaining an overseas empire, but did not encourage the growth of domestic industries, such as the textile industry.
 * Spain relied on the silver and gold bullion arriving in the port of Seville for its wealth
 * When Castille and Aragon joined together, they became powerful enough to drive the Moors and Jews out of Spain. Although this was viewed as a victory for Christianity across Europe, the Moors and Jews were Spain's best farmers and business people, and their expulsion hurt the Spanish economy in a time of increasing economic demand
 * During this time, the population of almost every major European country was experiencing large growths. Spain's economy could not support its growing population's increasing demands for food and goods. The Spanish colonies in the Americas also demanded products. For this reason, the expulsion of the Moors and Jews from Spain was perhaps the greatest blunder the Spanish monarchy had ever made.
 * The Price Revolution certainly did the Spanish no favors. High inflation rates had already occurred in Spain from the massive debts owed by Spain and the suffering economy. Now, with Spanish money worth so little, manufacturing costs skyrocketed and Spanish products could not compete on the global market
 * Between the years of 1557-1647, the Spanish monarch was forced to repudiate the State debt due to its inability to recompense its debts, which decreased the faith in the stability of the Spanish economy, and this can be fatal. For example, during the Great Depression, FDR identified the key cause of the depression to be the bank failures on massive scales. In response, FDR began his New Deal programs by restoring faith to the banking system of the United States.
 * Also, when the American economy suffered from the Great Depression, the rest of the world, which was still experiencing economic difficulties from WWI, suffered even more. This was the case of Spanish economic difficulties as well. Due to Spanish influence worldwide, when the government repudiated its debt, or when inflation severely hurt the economy, national economies across the world were hurt severely as well. For example, the wealthy Fuggers, the German banking family experienced bankruptcy, partially due to Phillip II's defaulting on his huge debts by the end of his lifetime

Brian Kim

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=<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">1997 Focusing on the period before 1600, describe and analyze the cultural and economic interactions between Europe, and the Western Hemisphere as a result of the Spanish and Portuguese exploration and settlement. =

== **<span style="font-size: 24pt; color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">From the beginning of the 15th century, Spanish technology was far superior to the other nations of Europe, allowing the Spanish to be the first to conquer the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish ruptured the culture of the indigenous people through the use of missionaries and the utter domination and suppression of the people. The Portuguese enslaved the people of the Madeira Islands, using them for their own economic profit. In some areas, the Spanish completely eradicated the indigenous people conquering the land for themselves and setting the beginning of fierce economic competition for land in the West. **==

<span style="font-size: 18pt; color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';"><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">I: Diffusion of foreign culture throughout the Western Hemisphere by the Spanish and Portuguese - Spanish missionaries, believing it was their duty to spread the all divine religion of Christianity, forced Christianity upon the indigenous people. This destroyed centuries of culture while ruthlessly imposing their own culture. -Forced the Taíno, the Native Americans found by Columbus, to work in mines which led to widespread malnutrition and furthermore the intrusion of European livestock and diseases caused further damage. -The Taíno often refused to participate in the new lifestyle forced upon them by the Spanish which resulted in massive amounts of suicide. - The Spanish introduced a social hierarchy on the Native Americans so that they may separate the lowly, subservient Native Americans from the wealthy, powerful Spaniards. -The Spanish took Native Americans from the Americas and brought them to Spain so that they may convert them to Christianity and embed them more within the Spanish culture, so that they may become more productive and aid the Spanish further. - Certain religious practices inherent within Aztec culture revolted the Spaniards, most notably, human sacrifices made to the Aztec gods. Subsequently the Spaniards destroyed Aztec culture and imposed their own culture.

II: Abuse of the Native American People for Economic Profit b the Portuguese and Spanish - The Spanish sent armies to plunder and conquer the Native American lands, obtaining as much gold as possible to increase Spanish riches and therefore increase Spanish power. - Spanish greed led conqueror Francisco Pizzaro to murder Montezuma and destroy the Aztec empire to attain the riches and gold for which the empire was famed. - The Spanish imposed a slave trade in which they would trade their enslaved Native Americans for valuable foreign items such as spices, fruits and gunpowder. - The Spanish enslaved the Native Americans and forced them to excavate gold from the land, thus obtaining a profit without doing any work themselves. - In addition to trading slaves, the Spanish also used the natural resources of the Americas to trade with other countries for valuable assets. - The naivety and innocence of the indigenous people were taken advantage of as well, for the awe when they saw the ships led them to desire a meager item of the Spanish for highly valuable gold, and the Spaniards thus obtained gold through this method as well.

III: Initiation of the Competition for Land by the Spanish and Portuguese - The Spanish completely overtook the Aztec civilization with the massive armies of Francisco Pizzaro and employed the land for their own demonstration of power and wealth. - The Spanish also abused the weakness of other nations within the Americas, choosing to allow the people to live as slaves and control the land for their own economic purposes. - The Spanish and the Native Americans had many minor territorial disputes in which the Spanish overtook the Native Americans and conquered their land. - Caused violent civil war over the Spaniards who opposed and those who favored the domination of Native American land. - The Spanish, after conquering a territory, would drain it of its resources and use what was left of the territory to boast its economic supremacy to the other European nations. - Spain's new wealth brought the envy of the other European countries, causing the other countries to eventually compete to gain land in The Americas. - The Incas, a wealthy and prevailing American nation, were completely eradicated by the land hungry, power yearning Spaniards. Stripped of their resources, the Incas succumbed to the powerful Spaniards.

Daniel Friedman

media type="custom" key="3529216"media type="custom" key="3529220"media type="custom" key="3529224" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;"> = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2000 Discuss three developments that enabled Great Britain to achieve a dominant economic position between 1700 and 1830. = = From 1700 to 1830, Britain engaged in a variety of different activities that both hurt and benefited its wealth and development as a country and world power. Moreover, this time period was vitally important for the development of the world as a whole when looking at the European Age of Industrialization, Colonial Expansion, and the British government spending increased amounts of revenue on war.= I: Industrialization -Great Britain was the home to the first Industrial Revolution and maintained its industrial leadership until the middle of the nineteenth century. -London was the largest city in Europe in the 18th century: there, people learned to want consumer goods they saw on trips for both business and pleasure. -Britain was the single largest free-trade area in Europe and had decent infrastructure, sound political structure, rich deposits of coal and iron ore, and advanced systems of banking and public credit that established a stable climate for investment. -Huge industry developed was textiles: the domestic, or putting-out system was replaced with factories powered by water mills. -Series of inventions: James Hargreaves- the spinning jenny in 1765, Richard Arkwright- water frame in 1769, James Watt- perfected steam engine in 1769. -*The steam engine not only vastly increased and regularized available energy but also made possible the combination of industrialization and urbanization (factories moved away from water) -High-quality iron was the chief element of all heavy industry and land or sea transport: 1) Charcoal was not used in the process anymore 2) The steam engine was perfected 3) The demand for iron grew. -The lower cost of iron, in turn, lowered the cost of the steam engine and allowed them to be used more widely. -Henry Cort- (1784) new method for melting and stirring molten ore (puddling) and a better rolling mill

II: Colonial Expansion -Mercantile Empires were an important force of the 18th century - Navies and merchant shipping helped to bring profit to a nation. -The British Empire after the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht consisted of the colonies along the North Atlantic seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Jamaica, and Barbados, as well as a few trading stations on the Indian subcontinent. -Battle of Plassey (1757)- over several Indian states in a political vacuum. Robert Clive beat Joseph Dupleix. -Britain was far away and established a system of viceroys to indirectly govern territory. -Britain tried to use the American colonies as both a market and a place to shove off their taxes onto, but ended up losing a huge economic opportunity when friendly relations closed between the two. -Trading Empire: The Latin American Wars of Independence opened South American markets to British goods. In North America, both the United States and Canada demanded British products. Through its control of India, Britain commanded the markets of southern Asia. -The Seven Years’ War: Britain won a lot of French North American territory. The French only kept New Orleans as a port.

III: Increased Revenue Spent on War -After the Industrial Revolution, shipbuilding industry exploded and the British soon established their military dominance over countries in various wars. -During French Revolutionary War (1793-1815)- British Royal Navy did well. -An 1805 naval victory against Napoleonic France: the British admiral Lord Horatio Nelson destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar: Nelson died but the British lost no ships. Moreover, the French lost all hope of invading Britain and this battle guaranteed British control of the sea for the rest of the war. - Steam power was of interest to the Royal Navy from the beginning of the 19th century, since it neatly solved the difficult and dangerous sailing problems encountered in estuaries and other inshore areas. It was first adopted in the Comet of 1821, and in 1824 Lightning accompanied the expedition to Algiers. Steam vessels appeared in greater numbers through the 1830s. - During the War of 1812 the Royal Navy's blockade of the US Atlantic ports was coordinated from Bermuda and Halifax, Nova Scotia. The blockade kept most of the American navy trapped in port. The Royal Navy also occupied coastal islands, encouraging American slaves to defect. Units of Royal Marines were raised from these freed slaves. The British Royal Army succeeded in their efforts.

=<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;"> = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2005 Analyze the economic, technological, and institutional factors responsible for western Europe's domination of world trade from 1650 to 1800.media type="custom" key="3566298" =

media type="custom" key="3566308" == Despite European countries often claiming that they were able to colonize other supposedly inferior countries due to their own cultural superiority, it was truly their supreme technology that allowed their imperialistic tendencies to develop. Europe’s technological innovations not only enabled them to create profitable overseas colonies, but also worked greatly to their advantage when they needed to assert their dominance in these areas. These instances came often, and with the mother-country’s economic well-being as the first priority, it wasn’t long before mercantilism and administrative institutions came into play as well.

> - Navigation Acts > - both saw opportunities for expanding the control of their respective companies (East India Company, Comagnie des Indes)
 * Europe’s superior technology allowed them to assert dominance over its colonies**
 * The wealth and growth of one nation would only expand at the cost of another --> one state might expand only if its armies or navies conquered the domestic or colonial territory of another
 * Supreme naval power and use of gunpowder
 * 17th Century --> scramble for colonies
 * 18th Century --> English replaced the Dutch as leaders of trade and the French became the new rival to the English
 * France’s Joseph Dupleix and Britain’s Robert Clive face conflict over African territories
 * Seven Years War between the English and French over the Ohio River Valley established Great Britain as unrivaled leader of commerce

> - the economic well being of the mother country came first > - colonies provided trading markets and its natural resources for the development of industries in the mother country > - national monopoly was the ruling principle > - chartered companies that enjoyed a legal monopoly
 * European overseas expansion and the consequent development of mercantilism**
 * 4 stages of expansion: discovery, exploration, initial conquest, and settlement of the New World
 * Three stages of commercial revolution: metal trade, spice trade and plantation system
 * Evident competition for colonies among Spain, France, and Great Britain
 * European governments created new empires where in they administrated natives from Africa and Asia - paternalism, direct/indirect rule
 * Brazil was under the command of Portugal, while Spain controlled the rest of mainland South America, Florida, Mexico, California, and the Southwest in North America.
 * British controlled Jamaica, Barbados, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia, as well as a few trading stations in India
 * French empire consisted of Ohio and the Mississippi river valley
 * Dutch controlled the trade with Java (present-day Indonesia)
 * Mercantilist goals:
 * French institution --> Compagnie des Indes
 * English institution --> East India Company

Stephanie Huynh

media type="custom" key="3529058"media type="custom" key="3529064"media type="custom" key="3529072" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2005 Discuss the economic policies and institutions that characterized mercantilist systems from 1600 to 1800. = == <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">From the fifteenth century to the seventeenth century, different economic policies strengthened and weakened mercantilist systems. Mercantilism was successful because it was the smartest and most necessary thing for the economy but it was weakened by new movements like the rise of Adam Smith and capitalism. == media type="custom" key="3566292" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(0, 255, 4); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2007 Britain and France were engaged in a geopolitical and economic rivalry during the eighteenth century. Identify the factors that contributed to this rivalry, and assess the results for both countries over the period 1689 to 1789. = The 18th century saw two of the worlds greatest powers pitted against each other in a rivalry for land and capital. At this time, British and French overseas empires had controlled areas in the Americas, Asia, and Australia yet they still desired more. They made a great effort to gain for ground and install mercantilist theories upon it. The result was not one the two nations European hoped for: war. The war of Spanish Succession and the Seven Year’s War were however necessary to conclude the everlasting rivalry between Britain and France over their colonial empires. Colonization and Mercantilism drove Britain and France into such a competitive state as all European nations had a need for incresed revenue - Britain controlled the North Atlantic Seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Jamaica, and Barbados - France controlled the Saint Lawrence, Ohio, and Mississippi River Valleys, Saint Domingue, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and parts of India - Britain and France continuously competed for trade in India as demand was very high for spices and calicos and India was looked upon as an easy market to sell large amounts of manufactured European goods - Competition in Americas between the twoà excessive fighting in colonies over land and trade- Native Americans involved as well - Mercantilism- governments heavily regulated trade and commerce in hope of increasing national wealth - Economists believed it necessary for a country to achieve a favorable balance - The mercantilist theory, always more efficient in planning, was always used to benefit the mother country at the expense of other nations. Most had no problem taking large amounts of capital from their colonies and often did. - Because nations would try to have more exports than imports in their country they would exploit their colonies - Colonies under British rule were not allowed to trade with France but desired to as their goods were normally at lower prices - Smuggling became a problem between France and Britain and led to long disputes

II.War between Britain and France broke out over issues regarding their own prosperity and prestige - War of Spanish Succession o Charles II of Spain dies with no heir on November 1, 1700 o France had ties to the Spanish crown but most of Europe was determined to prevent them from uniting while Louis XIV was in power o Phillip of Anjou (Louis’s grandson) becomes Phillip V of Spain o England, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire form the Grand Alliance- sought to preserve the balance of power o War of Spanish Succession fought for 13 years- France does not have enough available resources for success in war o Treaty of Utrecht- confirmed Phillip V king of Spain but gave England Gibraltar o English dominance over the course of the 18th century - The Seven Year’s War/ French and Indian War o Frederick II invades Saxony and begins Seven Year’s War o William Pitt the Elder- Sends 40,000 troops to America to fight off French in the colonies- France unable to do as such as they needed to put their resources into the war in Europe o Britain wins many important battles in Americas and eventually the war o Treaty of Paris- Britain received all of Canada, the Ohio River Valley, and the eastern half of the Mississippi River Valley. Returns Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Guadeloupe and Martinique to the French o British East India Company was able to impose its own authority on the Indian subcontinent

Harrison Marx