French+Revolution,+Napoleon,+&+Congress+of+Vienna



media type="custom" key="3576402"media type="custom" key="3576420" =1999 Compare and contrast the degree of success of treaties negotiated in Vienna (1814-1815) and Versailles (1919) in achieving European stability. = == Thesis: Though similar treaties, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) successfully established a basis for a century of European peace, whereas the Treaty of Versailles (1919) directly lead to another large scale international conflict. **__Congress of Vienna and its success__**: -France, the losing side of the war, was included as a fifth great power of the deliberation -“rule of legitimacy”= return the rightful monarchs to the thrones of Europe - nonvindictive boundary settlement kept France satisfied -aimed not to secure victory and punish a defeated France, but secure future peace -Concert of Europe: maintained stability in Europe and balanced power and trade so that all nations could prosper -Followed by age on Metternich, the Austrian prince who was crucial in the peace conferences. His conservative policies set the tone for stability among monarchs and nations after the congress of Vienna. -Treaties after this point were no longer between monarchs, they were between states; when the monarchs died, the treaties still existed -Through territorial rearrangement, France was contained, and a balance of European power was established -Territorial arrangements failed to recognize nationalist movements, and ignored pressures at the time to unify people of common culture under a single flag, but the nationalist pressures at the time of the congress were very small

-The triple alliance was not included in the peace negotiations -Germany was charged with “war guilt” -France pushed for reparations to be paid by Germany totaling over 30 million dollars -Left Germany with an army of 100,000 men -League of nations that was established by the treaty was too weak to prevent the uprising of fascist movements -Appeasement was given to Germany which allowed mobilization -Reparations increased the potency of Germany’s economic crises which lead to a rise in German Nationalism and aided the rise of the Nazi regime which caused WWII -Hitler and the Nazi regime withdrew from the treaty, and ignored it -They withdrew from the League of Nations, making it ineffective
 * __Treaty of Versailles and its failure__**:

-Quadruple Alliance between Britain Austria, Russia, and Prussia to maintain the peace terms = League of Nations proposed by President Woodrow Wilson to settle conflicts without war -established Kingdoms in the Netherlands, and rearranged the boundaries of Germany to what Napoleon established = Successor states in Eastern Europe - After Napoleons return and the 100 days, France was ordered to pay a war indemnity = reparations paid by Germany at the close of WWI
 * __Similarities between the two treaties__**:

John Bacchus = = = =2005 Compare and contrast Enlightenment and Romantic views of the relationship between God and the individual. =

= Thesis: During the Age of Enlightenment and Romanticism, there were many differences between the two ideas, especially in religion. Romanticism was a reaction to the ideals set by Enlightened thinker. Enlightened thinkers believed in Deism which viewed God as a divine watchmaker who left after he created this rational world. Philosophes believed religion was acting as a barrier towards scientific progress along with the various studies of human nature. Romantic thinkers believed differently, they considered religion to be one of the main ways to acquire knowledge and power.

Philosophes during the age of enlightenment believed churches and religion hindered the pursuit of a rational life and scientific study of humanity and nature

 * ===Believed that due to the Church’s teachings about the after life, people had turned their minds toward what was going tohappen after they had died rather then focusing on the life they were living right now===
 * ===Philosophes believed the church had too much unnecessary land and held much more power in politics than was necessary===
 * ===Enlightened thinkers believed that since the world they lived in was rational, the God that made the world must also be rational===
 * ===Many philosophes considered there to be a religion where the life of religion as well as the life of reason can be combined===
 * ===Many philosophes considered there to be a religion where the life of religion as well as the life of reason can be combined===
 * ===John Toland, a supporter of the Deist view wrote one of the earliest Deist works, Christianity Not Mysterious.===
 * ===This book promoted religion to be rational and natural rather than about being supernatural, mystical, and a phenomenon.===
 * ===God was regarded as a divine watchmaker===
 * ===The God set the watch, meaning the Earth in motion and then departed===
 * ===Therefore, even if humans were to pray to God, nothing was ever going to change as God has already departed from Earth===
 * ===Using the Deist ideas and principles, humans would be able to lead a life where they would be trying to improve their current life.===
 * ===Deists would try to evolve their standard of living rather than pray to God to hope God will come and help===

Romanticists saw religion as basic to human nature and faith as a means to knowledge

 * ===Accused the philosophes of subjecting everything to geometrical and mathematical models, therefore they were threatening imagination and feelings of humans===
 * ===Many Romantic writers urged a revival of Christianity===
 * ===Romantics were interested in architecture, literature, and the arts especially of the medieval times.===
 * ===The romanticists especially focused on hallucinations, dreams, sleepwalking, and many other phenomenon which were supposed to prove a world other than the rational one humans can see===
 * ===Methodism originated in the middle of the eighteenth century, primarily as a revolt against deism and rationalism===
 * ===Jon Wesley was the main leader of Methodism===
 * ===Methodism strived to reach perfection in this life===

Rucha Acharya
 ==

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=2006 In the period 1815-1900, political liberalization progressed much further in western Europe than in Russia. Analyze the social and economic reasons for this difference. = == **Russia had always been seemingly “backwards” in comparison to its other European counterparts. Reasons for this included the extremely repressive policies under the autocratic tsar, both abroad (Poland) and at home, which made it hard for revolutionary reform in society and the drawbacks of serfdom, with its negative effects on the peasants even after they were liberated.** == -  Tsar Alexander took the throne after his father Tsar Paul - After briefly flirting with Enlightenment ideals, Alexander permanently turned away from reform - Proponent of suppressing liberalism and nationalism at home and abroad - Many Russian officers were exposed to the ideas of the Enlightenment and realized how economically backward and politically stifled their own nation was. - They were not able to express themselves because of the tsar’s repressive policies - Many secret societies were created; all that talked about the Russian governments need for change. - When Alexander died, there was a major dynastic crisis - Constantine was next in line, but because he married a woman not of royal blood, Nicholas was the new tsar - Nicholas was less popular and more conservative than Constantine - Moscow regiment refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Nicholas ordered the cavalry to attack – became known as the Decembrist Revolt -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Exhibited the Tsar’s use of extreme autocracy -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Nicholas turned his back on nearly all reforms and literary and political censorship and a wide spread secret police flourished -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> There was little attempt to forge an efficient and honest administration -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> The only significant reform passed was the codification of Russian law -1833 - All other nations on the continent had abandoned serfdom -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> This created a profound cultural gap between Russia and the rest of Europe -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Alexander finally decided to abolish it because it would permit Russia to organize its human and natural resources to maintain its status as a great power -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Serfdom had become economically insufficient -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> There was always a threat of revolt from the unhappy serfs -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> The new nineteenth century though condemned serfdom as immoral -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> The actual emancipation of the serfs was a disappointment -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> For the serfs, freedom was not accompanied by land -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> They had to pay landlords over a period of 49 years for pieces of land that were usually too small and they had to pay interest -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> The serfs wouldn’t receive the land title until the debt was paid -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Poor harvests made it almost impossible for the peasants to repay their debts -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> These issues left a large portion of Russia’s population dissatisfied = Revolt and Repression in Poland = -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Nicholas was also extremely conservative in foreign affairs -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Poland, which ceased to exist as an independent state remained under Russian domination after the Congress of Vienna but was granted a constitutional government -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> The tsar was Poland’s ruler -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> He frequently infringed on the constitution and quarreled with the Polish Diet -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Polish Nationalists agitated for change -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> After the news of revolutions in France and Belgium, a small uprising took place in Warsaw -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Disturbances began to take place all over -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Nicholas sent troops to suppress the revolts -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Issued the Organic Statute which declared Poland an integral part of Russia -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Many Polish liberties were ignored -<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Russia was always ready to provide troops to suppress liberal or nationalistic movements - Repressive foreign policies inhibited the flow of new ideas
 * Repressive Policies of Autocratic Rule: **
 * Drawbacks of Serfdom: **

By: Liz Blesson =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(142, 11, 11); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2004 Analyze the shifts in the European balance of power in the period between 1763 and 1848. = In terms of relative power on and around the Continent, it can be ascertained that Britain became the most powerful nation of the time; its ability to assimilate liberal policies, exemplified through the Great Reform Bill and the Catholic Emancipation Act, in addition to its favorable economic climate through advances in machinery and a steady supply of natural and material resources, attest to this power. Conversely, Russia can be seen as having become the least powerful nation of the time; tsar Nicholas I's total suppression of nationalistic and liberal ideals through programs such as the Official Nationality, and moreover, his failure to modernize the Russian economy due to a strict policy entailing minimal reform, far oughtweighed Catherine the Great's limited Enlightened Despotism. The most radical overall change could be seen in France, which, under Napoleon Bonaparte, became the strongest nation in terms of territorial expansion; however, all of this was lost in the Congress of Vienna, causing France to end the time period as having lost much of the prosperity gained under Napoleon; France had nowhere near gained the likes of prosperity seen in Britain, yet it was definitely not as weak as Russia.

I. Britain's Liberal Assimilation Into Government and its Economic Prosperity (more specific in thesis)

 * __The American Revolution__(1760- 1783) is said to have played a large role in Britain's later respect for power to the people. Britain's loss had been surprising, but it had also been important, as it could very possibly have been a weighing mechanism in the assimilation.
 * Lord Liverpool's change of cabinet- favored policies of freedom.
 * __Catholic Emancipation Act (1829)__- strained relation with Ireland and fear of Irish rebellion led to this. Catholics could now become members of Parliament- Irish Danial O' Connell was now in Parliament.
 * Importance- Britain resisted possible rebellion and strengthened its bond with Ireland- Britain now had less of an inclination of weakness. It also did not need to use any resources at the moment to suppress Ireland, as it had been appeased. Thus, this agreement preserved British vitality and its standing as the greatest power.
 * __Great Reform Bill (1832)__- Expanded the size of the English electorate immensely- about 50%.
 * Importance- Appeased unrepresented property owners through the franchise and it reconciled interests to political institutions of the country. Thus Europe was successful in helping its own people and maintaining strength within.
 * **Economics**- Natural resources, adequate capital, native technological skills, a growing food supply, a social structure allowing considerable mobility, and strong domestic and foreign demand for goods made Britain the leader in economic leadership.
 * Recently invented machines allowed materials to be produced quickly and cheaply,
 * Resources were brought in from Latin America and the United States, and prospered from slave trade (totally immoral, but Britain could not have prospered without the trade).
 * Textiles was BIG MONEY.
 * In all, Britain had an excellent base, and a capital surplus that all other countries did not reach; they only made small progressions. Britain was powerful enough, due to this base, to lead the industries of the Continent.
 * Thus, through assimilation and economic advancement, Britain maintained its own power throughout the time- the shift in power was definitely not negative in Britain.

II. Suppression of Liberalism and Lack of Economic Reform in Russia Oughtweighing Reforms of Catherine the Great (more specific in thesis)

 * Russian Monarchs had a history of rejecting liberal and nationalistic ideas. Intellectuals were not generally supportive of such government.
 * Exception- __Catherine the Great__- Under her, a few provinces of the Ottomans and Poland were gained through military acquisition, and there was small political reform, such as the __Charter of the Nobility__, which guaranteed certain rights to nobles. However, this did not do much to actually strengthen Russia internally or economically (serfdom still existed, which was not favorable for the economy), and she was still a supporter of autocratic power.
 * Nicholas I was strongly conservative in terms of monarchical rule, he believed his power should be overarching to some extent.
 * __The Official Nationality of 1829__- Promoted slogan of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism," whereby Russian Orthodoxy would be the faith, Nicholas would be considered a sole power, and Russian support of the regieme was expected.
 * Importance- People were dissapointed with the government and had less support from it. To quote Kagan, "One result of this program was to leave serious Russian intellectuals profoundly alienated from the tsarist government." Thus the program was a failure insofar as people's patriotism was concerned, thus weakening Russia's internal stability. Russia was not open minded to other forms of government that had worked better in other nations (ex, Republic in Britain)
 * **Economics**- Nicholas I was profoundly afraid of change and how it could undermine his power. He had full knowledge, for example, about the economic inadequacy of the "serf" system, but did not remove it because " to remedy it now would be, of course, an evil more disasterous."
 * Thus, nothing was done to better the economy- the serf system was still in place and was one of the major failings of Russia.
 * Thus one can observe that, throughout the time, Russia doesn't really gain much power- it gains small territory, but remains woefully weak in politics and economics. It is, in effect, the weakest place that could be considered a __nation__ at the time. Power had shifted downwards.

III. The Radical Changes in France Resulting From the Expansion and Subsequent Failure Of Napoleon's Territorial Gains (more specific in thesis)

 * __Napoleon Bonaparte__ was ratified in France as consul for life- He subsequently established the __Napoleonic Code__, which safeguarded private property and abolished serfdom, setting up merit- based employment.
 * Importance- This helped out France's economy, as it increased the skill of workers, and abolished serfdom, which was economically inadequate.
 * At the height of France's power, Napoleon had taken over various Prussian, Austrian,Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian territories, and set up members of his family to rule in Holland, Westphalia, Italy, Naples, Spain and Sweden.
 * He was defeated by Britain in Battle of Trafalgar, so he ditched efforts to take over Britain.
 * Efforts by the European Coalition (Russia, Austria, Prussia, Britain) drained France resources. Napoleon's march into Russia was a total failure. The Battle of the Nations at Leipzeg decided Napoleon's defeat; he abdicated to Elba.
 * __Congress of Vienna__- It gave a boundary settlement which took away large tracts of the land France had taken, but kept it reasonably intact.
 * Elements of the Napoleonic Code existed still in French law; the above mentioned portions advanced France's economy. Furthermore, France was no longer the gigantic empire it once was, but was reasonably well off, with a good amount of territory and only a moneterial deficit to worry about- this could be remedied. It was still a relatively stable country near the end. Power had shifted up, then down here, and there would be nationalistic and liberal revolts on a small scale after the __Bourbon Restoration__, but in terms of power shifts, it was radical but not too bad.

Taha Ahmad (Awesomeness Incarnate)

media type="custom" key="3576538"media type="custom" key="3576550" =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(142, 11, 11); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;"> = =<span style="display: block; color: rgb(142, 11, 11); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2003 How and to what extent did Enlightenment ideas about religion and society shape the policies of the French Revolution in the period 1789 to 1799? = = From 1789 to 1799, the French Revolution saw the creation of many policies on religious, political, economic, and social matters. Enlightenment ideas from the philosophes about religion had a great impact toleration and the anticlericalism in France. Philosophes and physiocrats contributed to Enlightenment ideas about society that built the rights of the people, the economy and the new government.= =  By: Jake Cohen <span style="display: block; color: rgb(142, 11, 11); font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">2008 Analyze the ways in which the events of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic period (1789-1815) led people to challenge Enlightenment views of society, politics, and human nature. = Following the years after the French Revolution and the Reign of Napoleon I people began to challenge enlightenment views of society, politics, and human nature. During the 18th century romanticism emerged and triumphed over the rational perspective of enlightenment thinkers. The increased free thinking of French people spurred more open minded perspectives, thus liberalism began to combat conservatism in hopes of reforming France. As well an increase in nationalism produced by the rebellious people during the French revolution and admiration of Napoleon strengthened France as a nation ,in which tradition views of that of the enlightenment, were debunked by those of the new regimes coming into power in France, in hopes of restoring its prestige.

__**Romantiscm introduced during post French revolution and reign of Napoleon caused questioning of rational principles:**__
 * Described literature as unreal, sentimental and excessively fanciful
 * Opposition to enlightenment views
 * Questioned rational ideas and scientific principles
 * Reactionary movement to counteract the enlightenment
 * Opposed structural narrowness of past 18th century philosophes
 * Created an increase in liberal views
 * Focused on feelings and imagination
 * More organic rather than mechanical viewpoint
 * Used naturalistic perspective
 * Romantics refused to think of human nature as rational, more as unable to be categorized
 * Wanted to interpret physical human nature and human society
 * Saw religion as basic to human nature and faith
 * Caused more open minded thinking
 * Romantics admired : art, and literature
 * Jean Jacques Rousseau - ( romantic)- portrayed humans as innocent by nature, but corruptible

I__**ncreased free thinking resulting in the formation of liberalism to combat conservative viewpoints:**__
 * Challenged political, social and economic values
 * Declaration of the rights of man and citizen formed after French revolution :
 * Set up political framework of legal equality, religious tolerance , and freedom of the press
 * Called for more representative government
 * Stressed that peopled should have some what power over the people who govern them
 * Radical liberal views were produced after the French revolution in order to reform government, which ultimately resulted in the deaths of many people
 * Napoleon based jobs off merit making people work to earn their ranks, (liberal view), unlike conservative , such as when one is born into a rank
 * Increased free thinking during the French revolution caused people to take matters into their own hands

__**Up rise in nationalism ,which strengthened France based on peoples will and admiration as a result of the Napoleonic reign :**__
 * Napoleon restored prestige to France
 * Restoration of France as a nation caused people to become extremely nationalistic
 * People admired napoleon as their ruler thus strengthening his power as well the nations
 * Napoleon promoted nationalism in the militarily mobilized French nation
 * Soldiers were willing to die for their leader and their country, thus increasing their moral , in which French solders were harder to defeat in battle because they fought with passion for their nation
 * Nationalism spread from France to other nations as napoleon imposed French culture upon other nations and conquered lands
 * Napoleon wanted to exemplify French culture

By: Dominic Akerele